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Nama : 3LL4

Key   : 995299120404

metafunction web 2

Metafunctions

Halliday developed a theory of the fundamental functions of language, in which he analysed lexicogrammar into three broad metafunctions: ideational, interpersonal and textual. Each of the three metafunctions is about a different aspect of the world, and is concerned with a different mode of meaning of clauses. The ideational metafunction is about the natural world in the broadest sense, including our own consciousness, and is concerned with clauses as representations. The interpersonal metafunction is about the social world, especially the relationship between speaker and hearer, and is concerned with clauses as exchanges. The textual metafunction is about the verbal world, especially the flow of information in a text, and is concerned with clauses as messages. Malinowski's influence (see Figure 1.1) seems clear here: the ideational metafunction relates to the context of culture, the interpersonal metafunction relates to the context of situation, and the textual metafunction relates to the verbal context.

In each metafunction an analysis of a clause gives a different kind of structure composed from a different set of elements. In the ideational metafunction, a clause is analysed into Process, Participants and Circumstances, with different participant types for different process types (as in Case Grammar). In the interpersonal metafunction, a clause is analysed into Mood and Residue, with the mood element further analysed into Subject and Finite. In the textual metafunction, a clause is analysed into Theme and Rheme (as in the Prague School).

Figure 1.7: Metafunctional layering

Figure 1.7, taken from [Matthiessen & Bateman 1991], shows an analysis of the sentence ``In this job, Anne, we're working with silver'' into three different structures in the three metafunctions. This kind of diagram is called a ``metafunctional layering'' diagram in SFG, but the metafunctions do not have any kind of relative ``depth'', rather they are different dimensions.

The metafunctional theory is part of the ``functional'' side of SFG, but it is also important in the ``systemic'' side of SFG. Each metafunction has a principal system in the networks for clauses, verbal groups and nominal groups. For example the TRANSITIVITY system is the principal system for the ideational metafunction in the clause network. These principal systems are shown in Figure 1.8, taken from [Matthiessen & Bateman 1991].

Figure 1.8: Principal systems

An important theoretical point is that in general, in the system networks, the systems within each metafunction are closely interconnected, but are largely independent of systems in the other metafunctions. System interconnections across metafunctions are rare. This is illustrated in Figure 1.9, taken from [Matthiessen & Halliday to appear].

Figure 1.9: Independence of metafunctions

In this network fragment, there are normal dependency relationships within the MOOD region of the interpersonal metafunction, between the MOOD-TYPE and INDICATIVE-TYPE systems and between the INDICATIVE-TYPE and INTERROGATIVE-TYPE systems, and there is also a further interconnection: the TAGGING system can be entered either from the imperative feature of the MOOD-TYPE system or from the declarative feature of the INDICATIVE-TYPE system. But there are no interconnections at all between the MOOD region of the interpersonal metafunction and the TRANSITIVITY region of the ideational metafunction.

metafunction web

Metafunctions

From early on in his account of language, Halliday has argued that it is inherently functional. His early papers on the grammar of English make reference to the "functional components" of language, as "generalized uses of language, which, since they seem to determine the nature of the language system, require to be incorporated into our account of that system." ^[11] Halliday argues that this functional organization of language "determines the form taken by grammatical structure" ^[12]

Halliday refers to his functions of language as metafunctions. He proposes three general functions: the ideational, the interpersonal and the textual.

Ideational metafunction

The ideational metafunction is the function for construing human experience. It is the means by which we make sense of "reality"^[13]. Halliday divides the ideational function into two functions: the logical and the experiential metafunctions. The logical metafunction refers to the grammatical resources for building up grammatical units into complexes, for instance, for combining two or more clauses into a clause complex. The experiential function refers to the grammatical resources involved in construing the flux of experience through the unit of the clause.

The ideational metafunction reflects the contextual value of "field", that is, the nature of the social process in which the language is implicated^[14]. An analysis of a text from the perspective of the ideational function involves inquiring into the choices in the grammatical system of "transitivity": that is, process types, participant types, circumstance types, combined with an analysis of the resources through which clauses are combined together. Halliday's An Introduction to Functional Grammar (in the third edition, with revisions by Christian Matthiessen)^[15] sets out the description of these grammatical systems.

Interpersonal metafunction

The interpersonal metafunction relates to a text's aspects of tenor or interactivity.^[16] Like field, tenor comprises three component areas: the speaker/writer persona, social distance, and relative social status.^[17] Social distance and relative social status are applicable only to spoken texts.^[18] Note - this is not so, looking at the text of O´Halloran we are told that we no longer have the option to contrast the various speakers but we can examine "how the individual authors present themselves to the reader", therefore, we are able to look at social distance and relative social status in texts where there is only one author.

The speaker/writer persona concerns the stance, personalisation and standing of the speaker or writer. This involves looking at whether the writer or speaker has a neutral attitude, which can be seen through the use of positive or negative language. Social distance means how close the speakers are, e.g. how the use of nicknames shows the degree to which they are intimate. Relative social status asks whether they are equal in terms of power and knowledge on a subject, for example, the relationship between a mother and child would be considered unequal. Focuses here are on speech acts (e.g. whether one person tends to ask questions and the other speaker tends to answer), who chooses the topic, turn management, and how capable both speakers are of evaluating the subject.^[19]

Textual metafunction

The textual metafunction relates to mode; the internal organisation and communicative nature of a text.^[20] This comprises textual interactivity, spontaneity and communicative distance.^[21]

Textual interactivity is examined with reference to disfluencies such as hesitators, pauses and repetitions.

Spontaneity is determined through a focus on lexical density, grammatical complexity, coordination (how clauses are linked together) and the use of nominal groups. The study of communicative distance involves looking at a text’s cohesion—that is, how it hangs together, as well as any abstract language it uses.

Cohesion is analysed in the context of both lexical and grammatical as well as intonational aspects^[22] with reference to lexical chains^[23] and, in the speech register, tonality, tonicity, and tone.^[24] The lexical aspect focuses on sense relations and lexical repetitions, while the grammatical aspect looks at repetition of meaning shown through reference, substitution and ellipsis, as well as the role of linking adverbials.

Systemic functional grammar deals with all of these areas of meaning equally within the grammatical system itself.

lp3i

1. Short History Course LP3I Center (LCC)
LP3I Course Center is a division Short Courses (Short Course) from the Institute for Education and Professional Development Indonesia (LP3I) which was founded in 1989 by the Foundation for Education and Professional Development Institute of Indonesia (Yayasan LP3I), then follow the development of educational efforts and conditions legislation in force in the Republic of Indonesia.
Seeing the development of the company and market needs such a rapid and complex then separates division LP3I Short Courses (Short Course) becomes LP3I Courses on December 28, 2006, with the form or status of a Limited Liability Company PT. Lantern Education and Professional Development Indonesia ("PT. LP3I") established pursuant to Deed of Company Limited No. 5 On 5 November 2005.
To meet the needs of the community will be short of quality education and produce graduates who are skilled and reliable, then LP3I Courses Center have developed a short training and education programs are more targeted and tutoring programs.
In the Kuningan itself, LP3i been in existence for 4 years which is located at jl. Veteran no 53 Kuningan 45511. Until now, the movement of the number of students has reached approximately 265 participants divided into several teaching programs.

sbm

LESSON PLAN FOR TEACHING CHILDREN

Teacher            :

Topic               : Transportation

Aim                 : Students are able to describe the transportations.

Time                : 90 minutes

Level               : Beginner

Age                 : 10 years old

Anticipated problem(s) and solution(s):

Students do not have enough vocabularies to express their ideas.

Stages	Activities	Aids	Duration
Opening Aim: Raising students’ interest in the lesson	Teacher : ·         give question to student about transportation ·         describe transportation vehicles that should be answered by the students Student(s) : ·         Answer the teacher’s questions orally.		10 minutes
Ice-breaking Aim: Breaking the ice with some TPR (Total Physical Response) activities.	Teacher : ·         devide the students into two groups, there are group A and B ·         both of groups are balloted and the first group ask the other groups to guess the question that is given  ·         if that group can answer that question, they can give the question to the first group. But if they can’t answer it, the first group will give the question again to them		10 minutes
Lead-in Aim: Checking SS’s level of understanding	Teacher : ·         Match the picture of a transportation and the correct descriptions about it. Student(s) : ·         Do the teacher’s instruction.	·         Pictures of tranportation ·         Cards with the  description of the transportations	10 minutes
Presentation Aim: Introducing new Target Language (TL); Mentioning name of food, describing food using simple and compound sentences.	Teacher : ·         Give the axamples how to describe transportations. ·         Read the description aloud as the example for the student. ·         Ask the students to describe the other transportations. Students : ·         Work individually, follow the teacher’s instructions.	·         Pictures of transportations	1 5 minutes
Controlled Practice Aim: Giving SS opportunity to practice under Teacher’s control of the use of TL	Teacher : ·         Tell students to work in a group. ·         Give the instruction to the students to complete the table based on the picture. Students : ·         Complete the table with their group. ·         Discuss the correct answer lead by the teacher.	Table about description of transportations.	15 minutes
Semi-Controlled Practice Aim: Giving SS opportunity to practice with self autonomy with lesser Teacher’s control of the use of TL	Teacher : Students : ·         Ask the students to answer the questions about transportation with fill in the blank exercise Students : ·         Do the exercise that is instructed by the teacher.	Paper of exercise	15 minutes
Free Practice Aim: Giving SS opportunity to practice with high level of confidence to build fluency	Teacher : ·         Ask the students to tell about their experiences about transportation in the paper. Students : ·         Follow the teacher’s instruction.	·         Blank paper ·         Pen	10 minutes
Feed-back Aim: Getting input of the acceptance level of the Teaching Learning Process, Material, the Real Life Practice	Teacher : ·         Ask students about the events of today. ·         Conclude matter has been discussed. ·         Tell the students how to apply the knowledge they already exist in their real life Students : ·         Answer the teacher’s questions.		5 minutes

noun

There are many types of nouns that can be used in the English language. Children are usually taught that nouns are people, places, things or abstract ideas. There are no fewer than eight ways in which to classify a noun and it is important that homeschooled students and parents understand each of them.

Eight Types of Nouns

1. Proper Nouns: These are nouns that refer to very specific people, places or things. The rule of thumb is that these nouns should be capitalized. This type of noun applies to places such as Illinois, names of people such as Jessica and the names of places or institutions like Queen's University.
2. Common Nouns: These nouns are general in nature and are not capitalized. Take for example the proper noun St. Brice's Church; because of its reference to a specific church, it is a proper noun. But the word "church" used on its own is a common noun. This is a because it does not make reference to a specific church.

3. Countable Nouns: These nouns can be either singular or plural in nature and they are usually used in conjunction with words that reference quantity, such as most or many. Take for example the word table; it can be used as a singular noun "a table" or a plural noun "many tables".
4. Collective Nouns: These nouns, as their title implies, refer to a group. Collective nouns often reference a specific group. Take for example a "brigade of firemen" or a "grove of trees."
5. Abstract Nouns: Abstract nouns can be a little tricky to master because they refer to concepts, ideas and philosophies instead of physical things. For example abstract nouns can be things like courage, fear, hate and generosity.
6. Uncountable Nouns: These nouns cannot be counted they are often referred to as mass nouns. For example when saying, "The pool was full of water." The uncountable noun in this sentence is water. These nouns cannot be used in a plural form.

Read on 

• Understanding Nouns: Proper Nouns, Common Nouns and Pronouns
• The Seven Different Types of Pronouns
• Learning English as a Second Language

7. Concrete Nouns: These are nouns such as desk, water, Kevin, and cotton. These nouns can all be touched, smelt, tasted or seen. In order to be a concrete noun, it must be perceived by using one of the five senses.
8. Pronouns: These nouns can take the place of a noun when referring to people places or things. In English the personal pronouns are I, you, he, she, it and they. Depending on their function within a sentence these nouns can take on their possessive forms or their objective case. For example in the sentence, "She danced around the room," she is a singular personal pronoun. In the sentence "Allana danced around her room," her is a possessive form of the personal pronoun.

English morphology 2

ENGLISH MORPHOLOGY
Morphology is the field of linguistics that studies the internal structure of words. (Words as units in
the lexicon are the subject matter of lexicology.) While words are generally accepted as being the
smallest units of syntax, it is clear that in most (if not all) languages, words can be related to other
words by rules. For example, English speakers recognize that the words dog, dogs, and dog catcher
are closely related. English speakers recognize these relations from their tacit knowledge of the
rules of word formation in English. They infer intuitively that dog is to dogs as cat is to cats;
similarly, dog is to dog catcher as dish is to dishwasher. The rules understood by the speaker reflect
specific patterns (or regularities) in the way words are formed from smaller units and how those
smaller units interact in speech. In this way, morphology is the branch of linguistics that studies
patterns of word formation within and across languages, and attempts to formulate rules that model
the knowledge of the speakers of those languages.
A morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit. In a word, the morpheme that carries the core
meaning of the word itself is called lexical morpheme or lexeme.
1. MORPHOLOGICAL TYPOLOGY
In the 19th century, philologists devised a now classic classification of languages according to their
morphology. According to this typology, some languages are isolating, and have little to no
morphology; others are agglutinative, and their words tend to have lots of easily separable
morphemes; while others yet are inflectional or fusional, because their inflectional morphemes are
"fused" together. This leads to one bound morpheme conveying multiple pieces of information. The
classic example of an isolating language is Chinese; the classic example of an agglutinative
language is Turkish; both Latin and Greek are classic examples of fusional languages. Italian is as
well.
English used to be a fusional language but is tending towards becoming isolating, just like Chinese.
This classification refers to inflectional morphology, not derivational morphology, which does not
vary so much across languages and is very rarely fusional.
2. TWO MORPHOLOGIES
Given the notion of a lexeme, it is possible to distinguish two kinds of morphological rules. Some
morphological rules relate to different forms of the same lexeme; while other rules relate to
different lexemes. Rules of the first kind are called inflectional rules, while those of the second
kind are called word formation. The English plural, as illustrated by dog and dogs, is an
inflectional rule; compounds like dog catcher or dishwasher provide an example of a word
formation rule. Informally, word formation rules form "new words" (that is, new lexemes), while
inflection rules yield variant forms of the "same" word (lexeme).
There is a further distinction between two kinds of word formation: derivation and compounding.
Compounding is a process of word formation that involves combining complete word forms into a
single compound form; dog catcher is therefore a compound, because both dog and catcher are
complete word forms in their own right before the compounding process has been applied, and are
subsequently treated as one form. Derivation involves affixing bound (non-independent) forms to
existing lexemes, whereby the addition of the affix derives a new lexeme. One example of
derivation is clear in this case: the word independent is derived from the word dependent by
prefixing it with the derivational prefix in-, while dependent itself is derived from the verb depend.
Caterina Donati, Business English a.a. 2008/2009 scheda 6
3. CLOSED CLASS ITEMS VS. OPEN CLASS ITEMS
Words come in two varieties: functional words, and lexical words. The difference has to do with
their meaning (purely grammatical vs. lexical and referential), and with what you cam do out of
them: you can invent a new lexical word, but you have no power on functional words. Functional
words usually evolve from lexical words through a process called grammaticalization.
Ex. Will.
4. THERE IS NO LONGEST WORD IN ENGLISH
What is the longest word of the English language? Some have mentioned the following:
(1) a. antidisestablishmentarianism (28 letters)
b. floccinaucinihilipilification (29 letters)
c. pneumonoultramicroscopicsilicovolcanokoniosis (45 letters)
As it turns out, there is no longest word in English. To see this, consider simply the following two
series, each of
which can be continued without limit to create a potentially infinite number of new words:
(2) a. great-grandmother
b. great-great-grandmother
c. great-great-great-grandmother
...
(3) a. sensation
b. sensational
c. sensationalize
d. sensationalization
e. sensationalizational
f. sensationalizationalize
…….
5. COMPOUNDING
The simplest way to form new words out of old elements is by compounding.
Compounding in English normally has the following properties:
(i) Compounds have a head, which gives them their main semantic and syntactic properties.
Example:
-syntactically, the expression blackboard is a noun, as is its head board
-semantically, the expression blackboard refers to things that are kinds of boards, as the noun
board.
(ii) The head comes last
(iii) The stress comes first
(iv) The meaning of the whole is not entirely predictable on the basis of the meaning of the parts.
In the following examples, the syllable with the main stress is indicated in bold. In each pair, a. is
not a compound because (a) it has its main stress on the final element, and (b) the meaning of the
whole is entirely predictable from the meaning of the parts (e.g. a black board is simply a board
that is black). By contrast, b. is a compound: the main stress is on the first element, and the meaning
of the whole is not entirely predictable from the meaning of the parts (a blackboard may not be
black, but for instance green, as is the case in many classrooms).
(4) a. a black board:
a board that is black
Caterina Donati, Business English a.a. 2008/2009 scheda 6
b. a blackboard:
a board for writing on with chalk in front of a class. It may or may not be black.
(5) a. a dark room: a room that is dark
b. a darkroom: a room from which daylight is excluded so that photographs can be processed.
There are sometimes instances of structural ambiguity in morphology. Thus a California history
teacher may be someone that teaches California history, or it may be a history teacher from
California. The first meaning is obtained by making California history a morphological constituent.
The second meaning is obtained by the morphological tree found on the right.
(6) California history teacher
a. N b. N
N N N N
teacher California
N N N N
California history history teacher
Types of compounds: how they are written
Since English is a mostly analytic language, unlike most other Germanic languages, it creates
compounds by concatenating words without case markers. As in other Germanic languages, the
compounds may be arbitrarily long. However, this is obscured by the fact that the written
representation of long compounds always contains blanks. Short compounds may be written in
three different ways, which do not correspond to different pronunciations, however:
1. The ‘solid’ or ‘closed’ forms in which two usually moderately short words appear together as
one. Solid compounds most likely consist of short (monosyllabic) units that often have been
established in the language for a long time. Examples are housewife, lawsuit, wallpaper, etc.
2. The hyphenated form in which two or more words are connected by a hyphen. Compounds that
contain affixes, such as house-build(er) and single-mind(ed)(ness), as well as adjective-adjective
compounds and verb-verb compounds, such as blue-green and freeze-dry, are often hyphenated.
Compounds that contain articles, such as mother-of-pearl and salt-and-pepper, are also often
hyphenated.
3. The ‘open’ or ‘spaced’ form consisting of newer combinations of usually longer words, such as
distance learning, player piano, lawn tennis, etc.
Usage in the US and in the UK differs and often depends on the individual choice of the writer
rather than on a hard-and-fast rule; therefore, open, hyphenated, and closed forms may be
encountered for the same compound noun, such as the triplets container ship/containership/
containership and particle board/particle-board/particleboard
Types of compounds: how they are interpreted
In general, the meaning of a compound is a specialization of the meaning of its head. The modifier
limits the meaning of the head. This is most obvious in descriptive compounds, in which the
modifier is used in an attributive or appositional manner. A blackboard is a particular kind of board,
which is (generally) black, for instance.
In determinative compounds, however, the relationship is not attributive. For example, a footstool is
Caterina Donati, Business English a.a. 2008/2009 scheda 6
not a particular type of stool that is like a foot. Rather, it is a stool for one's foot or feet. (It can be
used for sitting on, but that is not its primary purpose.) In a similar manner, the office manager is
the manager of an office, an armchair is a chair with arms, and a raincoat is a coat against the rain.
These relationships, which are expressed by prepositions in English, would be expressed by
grammatical case in other languages. Both of the above types of compounds are called endocentric
compounds because the semantic head is contained within the compound itself -- a blackboard is a
type of board, for example, and a footstool is a type of stool.
However, in another common type of compound, the exocentric compound, the semantic head is
not explicitly expressed. A redhead, for example, is not a kind of head, but is a person with red
hair. Similarly, a blockhead is also not a head, but a person with a head that is as hard and
unreceptive as a block (i.e. stupid). And, outside of veterinary surgery, a lionheart is not a type of
heart, but a person with a heart like a lion (in its bravery, courage, fearlessness, etc.).
Note in general the way to tell the two apart:
1. Can you paraphrase the meaning of the compound "[X . Y]" to A person/thing that is a Y, or ...
that does Y, if Y is a verb (with X having some unspecified connection)? This is an endocentric
compound.
2. Can you paraphrase the meaning if the compound "[X . Y]" to A person/thing that is with Y, with
X having some unspecified connection? This is an exocentric compound.
Exocentric compounds occur more often in adjectives than nouns.
These types account for most compound nouns, but there are other, rarer types as well.
Coordinative, copulative or dvandva compounds combine elements with a similar meaning, and
the compound meaning may be a generalization instead of a specialization. Bosnia-Herzegovina,
for example, is the combined area of Bosnia and Herzegovina, but a fighter-bomber is an aircraft
that is both a fighter and a bomber. Iterative or amredita compounds repeat a single element, to
express repetition or as an emphasis. Day-by-day and go-go-go are examples of this type of
compound, which has more than one head.
In the case of verb+noun compounds, the noun may be either the subject or the object of the verb.
In playboy, for example, the noun is the subject of the verb (the boy plays), whereas it is the object
in callgirl (someone calls the girl).
Types of compounds: nouns, adjectives, verbs
Compound Nouns
• Boyfriend, hatchback
• Cut-throat, breakfast
• Sunshine, birth control
• Software, fast food
• In-crowd, overkill
• Drop-out, put-on
• Noun + Noun
• Verb + Noun
• Noun + Verb
• Adjective + Noun
• Particle + Noun
• Verb + Particle
Compound Verbs
Caterina Donati, Business English a.a. 2008/2009 scheda 6
• Carbon-copy, sky-dive
• Fine-tune
• Overbook
• Bad-mouth
• Noun + Verb
• Adjective + Verb
• Particle + Verb
• Adjective + Noun
Compound Adjectives
• Capital-intensive
• Deaf-mute
• Coffee-table
• Roll-neck
• White-collar
• Before-tax
• Go-go
• Noun + Adjective
• Adjective + Adjective
• Noun + Noun
• Verb + Noun
• Adjective + Noun
• Particle + Noun
• Verb-verb
Phrasal verbs
English syntax distinguishes between phrasal verbs and prepositional verbs. Consider the following:
I held up my hand.
I held up a bank.
I held my hand up.
*I held a bank up.
The first three sentences are possible in English; the last one is unlikely. When to hold up means to
raise, it is a prepositional verb; the preposition up can be detached from the verb and has its own
individual meaning "from lower to a higher position". As a prepositional verb, it has a literal
meaning. However, when to hold up means to rob, it is a phrasal verb. A phrasal verb is used in an
idiomatic, figurative or even metaphorical context. The preposition is inextricably linked to the
verb; the meaning of each word cannot be determined independently but is in fact part of the idiom.
The Oxford English Grammar distinguishes seven types of prepositional or phrasal verbs in
English:
1. intransitive phrasal verbs (e.g. give in)
2. transitive phrasal verbs (e.g. find out [discover])
3. monotransitive prepositional verbs (e.g. look after [care for])
4. doubly transitive prepositional verbs (e.g. blame [something] on [someone])
5. copular prepositional verbs. (e.g. serve as)
6. monotransitive phrasal-prepositional verbs (e.g. look up to [respect])
7. doubly transitive phrasal-prepositional verbs (e.g. put [something] down to [someone]
Caterina Donati, Business English a.a. 2008/2009 scheda 6
[attribute to])
Blendings
Definition: Similar to compounds, but parts of the words are deleted.
• Examples:
Motor + hotel  Motel
Breakfast + lunch  Brunch (1896)
Wireless + Fidelity  Wi-fi
Sheep + goat  Shoat
Tanganyika + Zanzibar  Tanzania (1964)
Spanish + English  Spanglish
Oxford + Cambridge  Oxbridge
Eletric + execute  electrocute
Black + exploitation  Blaxploitation (film genre)
Bill + Hillary  Billary (referring to the two Clintons)
Tom + Katie  Tomkat (referring to Tom Cruise and Katie Holmes)
Many blends have been created in recent years as names for new forms of exercise regimes, many
of them trade names: Aquarobics, Callanetics (the first name of Callan Pinckney blended with
athletics), Jazzercise (jazz + exercise), aquacise, dancercise, sexercise, and slimnastics. Among
sports we have terms like parascending (parachute + ascending) and surfari, and nonce adjectives
such as sportsational or swimsational which blend words with the last element of sensational.
The media, advertising and show business have been responsible for an especially large crop:
advertorial (an advertisement written as though it were an editorial); docutainment (a documentary
written as entertainment, with variable felicity concerning actual events), which is also known as a
dramadoc, from dramatised documentary, though this is a clipped compound, not a blend); an
infomercial is a television commercial in the form of an information announcement; infotainment
is a blend, in reality as well as etymology, of information and entertainment; a magalogue is a cross
between a magazine and a catalogue; a televangelist is a television evangelist. From the
entertainment field we have animatronics (a blend of animated and electronics), camcorder
(camera + recorder), rockumentary (a rock documentary) and, for a while in Britain, squarial (a
square aerial, used to receive satellite television signals).
Politics and the economy have a fair representation in the list. We have Clintonomics,
Reaganomics, and Rogernomics which all combine the name of a political figure with the word
economics. In similar vein are stagflation, a near-disastrous combination of stagnation and
inflation, and slumpflation (slump + inflation). The US has punning blends like Californicate.
Science and technology has been responsible for large numbers of new blends. Some wellestablished
ones are transistor (transfer + resistor), Chunnel (Channel + tunnel), smog (smoke +
fog); nucleonics (nucleon + electronics), and transputer (transistor + computer). However, there is
a set of new scientific words which fall somewhere in the same territory as blends but which also
could also be said to look like extended abbreviations or acronyms. An excellent example is
amphetamine, which comes from its full chemical name of alpha methyl phenyl ethyl amine. Such
creative mangling of names is now common when making up the vast number of trade and generic
names needed for new drugs: zidovudine, the generic name of the AIDS drug AZT, is formed from
azidodeoxythymidine with the letters vu inserted for no obvious reason; ranitidine, used to treat
stomach ulcers and better known by its trade name Zantac, is furan + nitro + –itidine.